Articles about Community Gardens and Society:

Building Relationships, Accessing Resources: Mobilizing Social Capital in Community Garden Contexts

Troy D. Glover and Diana C. Parry
University of Waterloo
KimberlyJ. Shinew
University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign

Journal of I.xisure Research Copyright 2005
2005, Vol. 31, No. 4, l>p. 450-474 National Recreation and Park Association

The preservation and advancement of grassroots associations, such as community garden groups, often depend upon an association's ability to leverage a variety of resources situated within itself, that is, among its membership and outsiders whom it can convince to support its cause. With the salience of resource mobilization in mind, this study aimed to understand how the social relationships formed within community garden settings assisted community garden leaders in accessing resotirces. The findings suggest "leisure episodes" are particularly important to building strong ties, a common source of social capital, and therefore serve as the social ltibricant for social capital production.


Leisure spaces as potential sites for interracial interaction: Community gardens in urban areas

Shinew KJ, Glover TD, Parry DC
JOURNAL OF LEISURE RESEARCH    Volume: 36    Issue: 3    Pages: 336-355    Published: 2004  

Abstract: Finding ways to alleviate racial tension is an important societal issue. A well-established strategy is to increase positive contact between members of different racial groups, which is hypothesized to lead to improved racial attitudes if the contact takes place under certain conditions. Bridging racial divides, however, has historically been a difficult process. Leisure settings can be ideal environments for interracial interaction to occur due to qualities of free choice and self-determination. This Study focuses on a specific type of leisure environment, community gardens located in urban settings. More specifically, the purpose of the study was to examine whether urban community gardens are perceived as spaces in which people of different races can successfully integrate. The study also sought to examine race and its relationship to perceptions, motivations, and benefits of community gardening. The study focused on African American and White gardeners in St. Louis.


Culturing community development, neighborhood open space, and civic agriculture: The case of Latino community gardens in New York City

Laura Saldivar-Tanaka1 and Marianne E. Krasny2
1D.F., C.P. 10201, Mexico; 2Department of Natural Resources, Fernow Hall, Cornell University Ithaca, New York, USA

Accepted in revised form May 20, 2003

Abstract. To determine the role Latino community gardens play in community development, open space, and
civic agriculture, we conducted interviews with 32 community gardeners from 20 gardens, and with staff from 11 community gardening support non-profit organizations and government agencies. We also conducted observations in the gardens, and reviewed documents written by the gardeners and staff from 13 support organizations and agencies. In addition to being sites for production of conventional and ethnic vegetables and herbs, the gardens host numerous social, educational, and cultural events, including neighborhood and church gatherings, holiday parties, children’s activities, school tours, concerts, health fairs, and voter registration drives. In some cases, the gardens also serve to promote community activism. The primary concern of gardeners is to secure land tenure in the face of pressures to develop the garden sites for housing. The support organizations and agencies provide help with land tenure, as well as with advocacy, organization, and horticultural practices. Although the role of the Latino gardens in community development appears to be more important than their role in open space or agricultural production, the gardens can also be viewed as unique ‘‘participatory landscapes’’ that combine aspects of all three movements, as well as provide a connection between immigrants and their cultural heritage.


The city in the country: Growing alternative food networks in Metropolitan areas

Lucy Jarosz

Department of Geography, University of Washington, Box 353550, Seattle, WA 98195 USA

Journal of Rural Studies 24 (2008) 231–244

Abstract
Alternative food networks (AFNs) are commonly defined by attributes such as the spatial proximity between farmers and consumers, the existence of retail venues such as farmers markets, community supported agriculture (CSA) and a commitment to sustainable food production and consumption. Focusing upon processes rather than attributes, this paper identifies two place-based processes that both promote and constrain the emergence and development of AFNs. Urbanization and rural restructuring are critical to the development of AFNs. AFNs are not a ‘‘thing’’ to be described, but rather emerge from political, cultural and historical processes. The interactions of urbanization and rural restructuring produce AFNs that are differentiated and marked by uneven development that does not necessarily support all farmers participating in the network. This indicates both the fragility and the dynamism inherent in AFNs that are tied to metropolitan development and change. Paradoxically, increasing urban demand for seasonal, and organic produce grown ‘close to home’ and the processes of rural restructuring which emphasize small-scale sustainable family farming and its direct food linkages to cities do not necessarily enable all farmers to consistently make a living from season to season. Evidence for these claims comes from an in-depth,
qualitative case study reliant upon participant observation, in-depth interviews and draws from a statewide farmer survey and a regional consumer survey in Washington State.

Articles about Urban Gardening and Pb:

Sources, Sinks, and Exposure Pathways of Lead in Urban Garden Soil

Heather F. Clark,* Daniel J. Brabander, and Rachel M. Erdil

J. Environ. Qual. 35:2066–2074 (2006).  Technical Reports: Heavy Metals in the Environment

ABSTRACT
The chemistry of Pb in urban soil must be understood in order to  limit human exposure to Pb in soil and produce and to implement  remediation schemes. In inner-city gardens where Pb contamination is  prevalent and financial resources are limited, it is critical to identify the variables that control Pb bioavailability. Field-portable X-ray fluorescence was used to measure Pb in 103 urban gardens in Roxbury and Dorchester, MA, and 88% were found to contain Pb above the USEPA reportable limit of 400 mg g21. Phosphorus, iron, loss on ignition, and pH data were collected, Pb-bearing phases were identified by X-ray diffraction, and Pb isotopes were measured using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Four test crops were grown both in situ and in Roxbury soil in a greenhouse, and plant tissue was analyzed for Pb uptake by polarized energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence. Variation at the neighborhood scale in soil mineralogical and chemical characteristics suggests that the bioavailable fraction of Pb in gardens is site specific. Based on Pb isotope analysis, two historical Pb sources appear to dominate the inventory of Pb in Roxbury gardens: leaded gasoline (207 Pb/206 Pb 5 0.827) and Pb- based paint (207Pb/206 Pb 5 0.867). Nearly 70% of the samples analyzed can be isotopically described by mixing these two end members, with Pb-based paint contributing 40 to 80% of the mass balance. A simplified urban human exposure model suggests that the consumption of produce from urban gardens is equivalent to approximately 10 to 25% of children’s daily exposure from tap water. Further-
more, analysis of over 60 samples of plant tissue from the four test species suggests that in these urban gardens unamended phytoremediation is an inadequate tool for decreasing soil Pb.


Evaluation of landscape coverings to reduce soil lead hazards in  urban residential yards: The Safer Yards Project

Helen J. Binns,a,b,* Kimberly A. Gray,c Tianyue Chen,b Mary E. Finster,c
Nicholas Peneff,d Peter Schaefer,b Victor Ovsey,d Joyce Fernandes,e Mavis Brown,f and
Barbara Dunlape
a  Department of Pediatrics, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
b  Mary Ann and J. Milburn Smith Child Health Research Program, Children’s Memorial Hospital, 2300 Children’s Plaza, 157, Chicago, IL 60614, USA
c  Department of Civil Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
d  Public Health & Safety, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA
e  architreasures, Chicago, IL, USA
f  Erie Family Health Center, Chicago, IL, USA

Received 10 June 2003; received in revised form 24 February 2004; accepted 27 February 2004

Abstract
This study was designed primarily to evaluate the effectiveness of landscape coverings to reduce the potential for exposure to lead-contaminated soil in an urban neighborhood. Residential properties were randomized in to three groups: application of ground coverings/barriers plus placement of a raised garden bed (RB), application of ground coverings/barriers only (no raised bed, NRB),  and control. Outcomes evaluated soil lead concentration (employing a weighting method to assess acute hazard soil lead [areas not
fully covered] and potential hazard soil lead [all soil surfaces regardless of covering status]), density of landscape coverings  (6=heavy, 490% covered; 1=bare, o10% covered), lead tracked onto carpeted entryway floor mats, and entryway floor dust lead loadings. Over 1 year, the intervention groups had significantly reduced acute hazard soil lead concentration (median change: RB,  478 ppm; NRB, 698 ppm; control, +52 ppm; Kruskal–Wallis, P 1⁄4 0:02), enhanced landscape coverings (mean change in score:
RB, +0.6; NRB, +1.5; control,  0.6; ANOVA, Po0:001), and a 50% decrease in lead tracked onto the floor mats. The potential hazard soil lead concentration and the entryway floor dust lead loading did not change significantly. Techniques evaluated by this study are feasible for use by property owners but will require continued maintenance. The long-term sustainability of the method  needs further examination.


Lead levels of edibles grown in contaminated residential soils:  a field survey

Mary E. Finster , Kimberly A. Gray *, Helen J. Binnsa a, b
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208-3109,a
USA
Departments of Pediatrics and Preventive Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine,b
Northwestern University and Children’s Memorial Hospital, Chicago, IL, USA
Received 28 March 2003; accepted 13 August 2003

Abstract
Plants grown in lead contaminated soils can accumulate lead from the adherence of dust and translocation into the  plant tissue. In order to evaluate the potential health hazard due to the consumption of plants grown in residential gardens contaminated by lead, a survey of the lead concentrations in a typical array of edible vegetables, fruits and herbs was conducted. Samples of garden plants harvested from the field were washed with detergent or water alone to remove adhered soil. They were dried, separated into sections including root, shoot and edible fruit, and then  analyzed for lead content using inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES). Soil samples, taken in conjunction with the plant harvesting, were analyzed using flame atomic absorbance (FAA). A pattern of lead transference from soil through the root to the stem and leaves of garden crops was found. The majority of the lead was concentrated in the roots (root:soil ranging from 0.02 to 0.51), with some translocation into the shoots (shoot:soil as high as 0.10). This pattern is a concern particularly for crops in which the root, stems, stalks or leaves are edible. The lead concentration in fruiting vegetables was less than the detection limit of 10 ppm (microgram leadygram dry plant matter). Some edible portions of the leafy vegetables and herbs, however, were found to have lead levels that, if consumed, could contribute to the total body burden of lead. Therefore, urban gardeners should test the lead levels in their soils and develop strategies to ensure safety.


Genotypic variations in the accumulation of Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn exhibited by six commonly grown vegetables

P.D. Alexander a,*, B.J. Alloway b, A.M. Dourado a,1
a  Royal Horticultural Society’s Garden, Wisley, Woking, Surrey GU23 6QB, UK
b Department of Soil Science, School of Human and Environmental Sciences, The University of Reading, P.O. Box 233, Reading RG6 6DW, UK

Received 26 September 2005; received in revised form 31 January 2006; accepted 2 March 2006

Abstract
Metal contaminants in garden and allotment soils could possibly affect human health through a variety of pathways. This study focused on  the potential pathway of consumption of vegetables grown on contaminated soil. Five cultivars each of six common vegetables were grown in  a control and in a soil spiked with Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn. Highly significant differences in metal content were evident between cultivars of a number  of vegetables for several of the contaminants. Carrot and pea cultivars exhibited significant differences in accumulated concentrations of Cd and Cu with carrot cultivars also exhibiting significant differences in Zn. Distinctive differences were also identified when comparing one vegetable to another, legumes (Leguminosae) tending to be low accumulators, root vegetables (Umbelliferae and Liliaceae) tending to be moderate accu-
mulators and leafy vegetables (Compositae and Chenopodiaceae) being high accumulators.


Urban gardens: Lead exposure, recontamination mechanisms, and implications for remediation design

Heather F. Clark _, Debra M. Hausladen, Daniel J. Brabander
Department of Geosciences, Wellesley College, Wellesley, MA 02481, USA

Environmental lead contamination is prevalent in urban areas where soil represents a significant sink and pathway of exposure. This study characterizes the speciation of lead that is relevant to local recontamination and to human exposure in the backyard gardens of Roxbury and Dorchester, MA, USA. One hundred forty-one backyard gardens were tested by X-ray fluorescence, and 81% of gardens have lead levels above the US EPA action limit of 400 mg/g. Raised gardening beds are the in situ exposure reduction method used in the communities to promote urban gardening. Raised beds were tested for lead and the results showed that the lead concentration increased from an initial range of 150740 mg/g to an average of 336 mg/g over 4 years. The percent distribution of lead in the fine grain soil (o100 mm) and the trace metal signature of the raised beds support the conclusion that the mechanism of recontamination is wind-transported particles. Scanning electron microscopy and sequential extraction were used to characterize the speciation of lead, and the trace metal signature of the fine grain soil in both gardens and raised gardening beds is characteristic of lead-based paint. This study demonstrates that raised beds are a limited exposure reduction method and require maintenance to achieve exposure reduction goals. An exposure model was developed based on a suite of parameters that combine relevant values from the literature with site-specific quantification of exposure pathways. This model suggests that consumption of homegrown produce accounts for only 3% of children’s daily exposure of lead while ingestion of fine grained soil (o100 mm) accounts for 82% of the daily exposure. This study indicates that urban lead remediation on a yard-by-yard scale requires constant maintenance and that remediation may need to occur on a neighborhood-wide scale.


Determination of Spatial Continuity of Soil Lead Levels in an Urban Residential Neighborhood

1 Nita J. Shinn,* John Bing-Canar,* Michael Cailas,* Nicholas Peneff,- and Helen J. Binns?
* School of Public Health, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois; - Public Health & Safety, Inc., Chicago, Illinois; and Children’s Memorial Hospital, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois Received December 28, 1998

Environmental Research Section A 82, 46 } 52 (2000)
Article ID enrs.1999.4004, available online at http: / / www.idealibrary.com on

This study uses geostatistical techniques to model and estimate soil lead levels in an urban, residential  neighborhood. Sixty-two composite soil samples  (median 1773 ppm; range 175 to 7953 ppm) in a four- block area of brick and stone homes were obtained. The spatial continuity of soil lead levels was modeled with a semi-variogram, which was then  used to estimate lead levels at unsampled locations,  a process called kriging. Because soil lead levels  were spatially correlated, it is likely that a ‘‘nonrandom’’ process generated the lead distribution found.  This Anding signiAes the existence of lead sources  which were tentatively identiAed on historical  maps of the area and from past trafAc volume patterns. The distribution of kriged estimates of soil lead levels provides an explanatory tool for exploring and identifying potential sources and may  be useful for targeting urban soil abatement efforts.

Other Articles about Pb and Health:

High-Intensity Targeted Screening for Elevated Blood Lead Levels Among Children
in 2 Inner-City Chicago Communities

| Timothy A. Dignam, MPH, Anne Evens, MS, Eduard Eduardo, MPH, Shokufeh M. Ramirez, MPH, Kathleen L. Caldwell, PhD, Nikki Kilpatrick, MPH,
Gary P. Noonan, MA, W. Dana Flanders, DSc, MD, MPH, MA, Pamela A. Meyer, PhD, MSPH, and Michael A. McGeehin, PhD, MSPH

November 2004, Vol 94, No. 11 | American Journal of Public Health Dignam et al. | Peer Reviewed | Research and Practice | 1945

Objectives. We assessed the prevalence of elevated blood lead levels (≥10 micrograms of lead per deciliter of blood), risk factors, and previous blood lead testing among children in 2 high-risk Chicago, Ill, communities.
Methods. Through high-intensity targeted screening, blood lead levels were tested and risks were assessed among a representative sample of children aged 1 to 5 years who were at risk for lead exposure.
Results. Of the 539 children who were tested, 27% had elevated blood lead levels, and 61% had never been tested previously. Elevated blood lead levels were associated with chipped exterior house paint.
Conclusions. Most of the children who lived in these communities—where the prevalence for elevated blood lead levels among children was 12 times higher than the national prevalence—were not tested for lead poisoning. Our findings highlight the need for targeted community outreach that includes testing blood lead
levels in accordance with the American Academy of Pediatrics’ recommendations.


Soil Is an Important Pathway of Human Lead Exposure

Howard W. Mielke l and Patrick L. Reagan 2

1 lnstitute for Bioenvironmental Toxicology, Xavier University of
Louisiana, New Orleans, Louisana
2 Midwest Environmental Education and Research Association, St. Paul, Minnesota

Environmental Health Perspectives * Vol 106, Supplement 1 * February 1998

This review shows the equal or greater importance of leaded gasoline-contaminated dust
compared to lead-based paint to the child lead problem, and that soil lead, resulting from leaded  gasoline and pulverized lead-based paint, is at least or more important than lead-based paint (intact  and not pulverized) as a pathway of human lead exposure. Because lead-based paint is a high-dose  source, the biologically relevant dosage is similar to lead in soil. Both lead-based paint and soil lead are associated with severe lead poisoning. Leaded gasoline and lead in food, but not lead-based paint, are strongly associated with population blood lead levels in both young children and adults.  Soil lead and house dust, but not lead-based paint, are associated with population blood lead levels  in children. Most soil lead and house dust are associated with leaded gasoline. Lead-based paint dust is associated with cases of renovation of either exterior or interior environments in which the  paint was pulverized. Based upon the limited data to date, abatement of soil lead is more effective  than abatement of lead-based paint in reducing blood lead levels of young children. About equal  numbers of children under 7 years of age are exposed to soil lead and lead-based paint.  Seasonality studies point to soil lead as the main source of population blood lead levels. Soil lead is  a greater risk factor than lead-based paint to children engaged in hand-to-mouth and pica behavior.  In summary, soil lead is important for addressing the population of children at risk of lead  poisoning. When soil lead is acknowledged by regulators and the public health community as an  important pathway of human lead exposure, then more effective opportunities for improving
primary lead prevention can become a reality.


Seasonality and Children’s Blood Lead Levels: Developing a Predictive Model
Using Climatic Variables and Blood Lead Data from Indianapolis, Indiana,
Syracuse, New York, and New Orleans, Louisiana (USA)

Mark A.S. Laidlaw,1 Howard W. Mielke,2 Gabriel M. Filippelli,1 David L. Johnson,3 and Christopher R. Gonzales 2

1 School of Population Health, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia; 2 Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Xavier University of Louisiana, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA; 3 Department of Chemistry, State University of New York, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, New York, USA

Environ Health Perspect 113:793–800 (2005). doi:10.1289/ehp.7759 available via http://dx.doi.org/ [Online 24 February 2005]

On a community basis, urban soil contains a potentially large reservoir of accumulated lead. This study was undertaken to explore the temporal relationship between pediatric blood lead (BPb), weather, soil moisture, and dust in Indianapolis, Indiana; Syracuse, New York; and New Orleans, Louisiana. The Indianapolis, Syracuse, and New Orleans pediatric BPb data were obtained from databases of 15,969, 14,467, and 2,295 screenings, respectively, collected between December 1999 and November 2002, January 1994 and March 1998, and January 1998 and May 2003, respectively. These average monthly child BPb levels were regressed against several independent variables: average monthly soil moisture, particulate matter < 10 μm in diameter (PM10), wind speed, and temperature. Of temporal variation in urban children’s BPb, 87% in Indianapolis (R2 = 0.87, p = 0.0004), 61% in Syracuse (R2 = 0.61, p = 0.0012), and 59% in New Orleans (R2 = 0.59, p = 0.0000078) are explained by these variables. A conceptual model of urban Pb poisoning is suggested: When temperature is high and evapotranspiration maximized, soil moisture decreases and soil dust is deposited. Under these combined weather conditions, Pb-enriched PM10 dust disperses in the urban environment and causes elevated Pb dust loading. Thus, seasonal variation of children’s Pb exposure is probably caused by inhalation and ingestion of Pb brought about by the effect of weather on soils and the resulting fluctuation in Pb loading. Key words: climate, lead dust, lead exposure seasonality, modeling, PM10, soil lead, soil moisture.


Environmental lead toxicity and nutritional factors

Maqusood Ahamed, Mohd. Kaleem Javed Siddiqui_

Analytical Toxicology, Industrial Toxicology Research Centre, P.O. Box 80, M.G. Marg, Lucknow 226 001, India
Received 13 July 2006; accepted 28 March 2007
Clinical Nutrition (2007) 26, 400–408

Summary
Environmental lead toxicity is an old but persistent public health problem throughout the world and children are more susceptible to lead than adults because of their hand to mouth activity, increased respiratory rates and higher gastrointestinal absorption per unit body weight. In the last decade children’s blood lead levels have fallen significantly in a number of countries. Despite this reduction, childhood lead toxicity continues to be a major public health problem for certain at-risk groups of children, and concern remains over the effects of lead on intellectual development. The currently approved clinical intervention method is to give chelating agents, which bind and removed lead from lead burdened tissues. Studies indicate, however, that there is a lack of safety and efficacy when conventional chelating agents are used. Several studies are underway to determine the beneficial effect of nutrients supplementation following exposure to lead. Data suggest that nutrients may play an important role in abating some toxic effects of lead. To explain the importance of using exogenous nutrients in treating environmental lead toxicity the following topics are addressed: (i) different sources of lead exposure/current blood lead levels and (ii) protective effects of nutrients supplementation (some essential elements and vitamins) in lead toxicity.


Lead Exposures in U.S. Children, 2008: Implications for Prevention

Ronnie Levin,1 Mary Jean Brown,2 Michael E. Kashtock,3 David E. Jacobs,4* Elizabeth A. Whelan,5Joanne Rodman,6 Michael R. Schock,7 Alma Padilla,1 and Thomas Sinks2

1U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Boston, Massachusetts, USA; 2Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA; 3Food and Drug Administration, Washington, DC, USA; 4Department of Housing and Urban Development, Washington, DC, USA; 5National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA; 6U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA; 7U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA

OBJECTIVE: We reviewed the sources of lead in the environments of U.S. children, contributions to children’s blood lead levels, source elimination and control efforts, and existing federal authorities. Our context is the U.S. public health goal to eliminate pediatric elevated blood lead levels (EBLs) by 2010.
DATA SOURCES: National, state, and local exposure assessments over the past half century have identified risk factors for EBLs among U.S. children, including age, race, income, age and location of housing, parental occupation, and season.
DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS: Recent national policies have greatly reduced lead exposure among U.S. children, but even very low exposure levels compromise children’s later intellectual development and lifetime achievement. No threshold for these effects has been demonstrated. Although lead paint and dust may still account for up to 70% of EBLs in U.S. children, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that ≥ 30% of current EBLs do not have an immediate lead paint source, and numerous studies indicate that lead exposures result from multiple sources. EBLs and even deaths have been associated with inadequately controlled sources including ethnic remedies and goods, consumer products, and food-related items such as ceramics. Lead in public drinking water and in older urban centers remain exposure sources in many areas.
CONCLUSIONS: Achieving the 2010 goal requires maintaining current efforts, especially programs addressing lead paint, while developing interventions that prevent exposure before children are poisoned. It also requires active collaboration across all levels of government to identify and control all potential sources of lead exposure, as well as primary prevention.